Oral Candida Carriage and Species Prevalence among Tobacco-Smokers and Non-Smokers with and without Type 2 Diabetic Mellitus

The aim of the present study was to assess the oral Candida carriage and species prevalence among tobacco smokers and nonsmokers with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Thirty-three type 2 diabetic smokers, 30 non-smokers with T2DM, 32 systemically healthy smokers and 30 non-smoking systemically healthy individuals were included. Information regarding age, gender, duration of T2DM, duration of smoking, daily frequency of smoking and daily oral hygiene maintenance protocols was collected using a questionnaire. In all groups, FBG levels were measured using a digital glucometer, unstimulated whole salivary flow rate was measured and oral yeast samples were collected by scraping the dorsum of the tongue with a sterile cotton swab. Oral yeasts were identified using culture method and DNA sequencing. Candida species were isolated from all smokers and non-smokers with T2DM. Candida species were isolated from 100% non-diabetic smokers 56.7% non-diabetic non-smokers. Candida albicans (C. albicans) was the most commonly isolated yeast species in all groups. C. albicans carriage was significantly higher in non-diabetic smokers as compared with non-smokers. There was no significant difference in oral Candida carriage in type 2 diabetic smokers and non-smokers. In patients with T2DM, oral Candida carriage and species prevalence is governed by hyperglycemia and the role of tobacco smoking in this regard seems to be rather secondary.